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Verbal language in dreams is the speech—most commonly in the form of a dialogue between the dreamer him/herself and other dream characters—which forms part of the overall (mostly imagistic) dream scenario. Historically, there have been abundant references to verbal language in dreams going back millennia. Early in the twentieth century German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin presented a large corpus of dream speech, almost all from his own dreams and virtually all deviant, without any pretense that this was representative of dream speech in general. The first systematic elicitation of verbal language in dreams from a large subject pool under methodological protocols was presented beginning in the early 1980s, along with detailed analyses as well as theoretical consideration of the implications for various dream models, from the psychoanalytic approach to more recent theories. ==Dream language in history== Traditionally, dreams have been defined predominantly in imagistic terms.〔For example, the German psychologist K.A. Scherner in his book ''Das Leben des Traumes'' (1861, cited by Freud 1900/1953 ''The Interpretation of Dreams,'' in James Strachey ed. and trans. ''The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud,'' vols 4-5, Hogarth Press, p. 84) states that the dreaming imagination is "without the power of conceptual speech (therefore ) obliged to paint what it says pictorially"; Funk and Wagnall's Standard Dictionary of the English Language of 1895 defined "to dream" as "to have a train of images or fantasies pass through the mind in sleep"; a recent edition of the ''Oxford Dictionary of Current English'' defines dream as a "vision, series of pictures or events presented to the sleeping person."〕 Prominent dream theories of the modern era from Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic model (1900) to the present have similarly placed emphasis of the visual aspects of dreams. Yet, even the earliest of written sources, such as the Hebrew Bible〔Genesis 28: 12-13〕 and The Odyssey〔Book 6〕 make clear that dreams need not be "silent movies"; they may be "talkies" incorporating a "sound track" abounding in verbal dialogues or monologues.〔Verbal language in dreams is distinct from the phenomenon of sleeptalking, that is, actual articulation out loud during sleep. As reported from a series of experiments by Alan Arkin (''Sleeptalking: Psychology and Psychophysiology''; Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., 1981), most sleeptalking occurs not during REM-sleep (the neurological periods of sleep most associated with vivid dreaming) but during non-REM sleep. Even of those sleeptalking espisodes which do occur during REM sleep, only about half show any obviously discernible relation with the dream reports elicited from the subject when awakened immediately following the sleeptalking.〕 A survey by Heynick of several books containing over 300 dreams, both genuine reports and dreams incorporated into works of fiction, showed that some three-quarters contained verbal dialogue or explicit reference to speech in the dream.〔Heynick (1993), p.26〕 As a specimen of a dream with dialogue as part of a famous work of fiction, Heynick cites the dream of Charles Swann, the main character in Proust's ''Swann's Way'' (1913; italics added): The painter remarked to Swann (dreamer ) ''that Napoleon III had eclipsed himself immediately after Odette. "They had obviously arranged it between them,"'' he added; ''"they must have agreed to meet at the foot of the cliff, but they wouldn't say good-bye together, it might have looked odd. She is his mistress."'' The strange young man burst into tears. Swann endeavored to console him. ''"After all, she is quite right,"'' he said to the young man, drying his eyes for him and taking off his fez to make him feel more at ease. ''"I've advised her to do that myself a dozen times. Why be so distressed? He was obviously the man to understand her."''〔Heynick (1993), p.26〕 In 1906 Kraepelin, a pioneer of the somatic approach to psychiatry and of the methodical classification of psychiatric disorders, published a 105-page monograph ''Über Sprachstörungen im Traume'' (On Speech Disorders in Dreams).〔Emil Kraepelin 1906 ''Über Sprachstörungen im Traume''; Engelmann Verlag〕 As the title suggests, Kraepelin's declared aim was to analyze only deviant specimens of speech from dreams. Specimens reflecting correct speech processes were excluded from his study. To this end, Kraepelin assembled in the course of twenty years 286 specimens, the vast majority drawn from his own dreams, with no pretense to nonselectivity. He apparently drew in large measure from hypnagogic and occasionally hypnopompic dreamlets (experienced when falling asleep and waking up), which differ phenomologically from full-fledged dreams and are characterized by different neurological indices as well. Kraepelin meticulously classified his collection of dreams according to the nature of the deviances from correct normal speech in wakefulness.〔Heynick (1993), pp. 45-46〕 Three-fifths of his specimens were grouped as disorders of word selection, including large numbers of neologisms (non-existing words, typically formed by combinations of existing words or their components); just over one-fifth as disorders of discourse (actaphasia, usually involving the incorrect choice of language dependency relations; and agrammatism, the faulty construction of complex sentences); and just under one fifth as disorders of thought. Although it was well known at the time that the speech of normal people in wakefulness is often fraught with errors,〔In 1895 Rudolf Meringer and Karl Mayer published ''Versprechen und Verlesen, eine psychologische-linguistische Studie'' (Slips of Speech and Reading, a Psychological-Linguistic Study) containing and analyzing over 8000 specimens of linguistic errors from normal people in waking life; this study is mentioned in Kraepelin's monograph.〕 Kraepelin prized his corpus of deviant dream speech for the profound nature of many of the errors they contained, different from the common slips of the tongue made by mentally healthy people in everyday life. He likened various specimens of his dream speech corpus to the speech in waking life of patients with dementia precox (schizophrenia), speech confusion, and aphasia. Kraeplin saw his dream experiences as affording him (a normal person) first-hand insight into these pathological processes. He further speculated on neurological concomitants involving the activities and interaction of areas of the brain—the cerebral cortex, Wernicke's coil, Broca's coil—which are different from in normal wakefulness. Although several of Kraepelin's dream speech specimens are amenable to interpretation for their latent sexual significance,〔Heynick (1993), pp. 46-47〕 he had no interest in the psychoanalytic approach and made no reference to his contemporary Freud in any of his writings.〔Kraepelin's full 1906 monograph is published in English translation in Heynick (1993), which also includes English translations of three relevant shorter pieces by Kraepelin's contemporaries Ernst Meumann, Friederich Hacker, and Alfred Hoche. In the mid-1980s a cache of Kraepelin's notations was discovered in Munich which showed that for two decades after the publication of his 1906 monograph he had continued to record specimens of his dream speech, an additional 391 in toto. These, too, were included in Heynick (1993), presented for the first time in their original German as well as in English translation along with Kraepelin's notes and an analysis and categorization by the author. Verbal material presented in print in dreams and read by the dreamer, a phenomen treated by Meumann and mentioned by Freud (1900) and Kraepelin (1906), is considered in Heynick (1993), pp. 52-62 and in Frank Heynick 1985 "Verbal behavior in dreams; neurobiological implications for LSP reading?," in A.K. Pugh & J.M. Ulijn (eds.) ''Reading for Professional Purposes: Studies and Practices in Native and Foreign Languages''. Heinemann, pp.321-341.〕 Prior to the 1980s, therefore, no indices or standards existed that were representative of the verbal language component of the dreams of a large general population. But beginning in 1983, Heynick reported in a series of publications the results of two experiments designed to evaluate, first, the linguistic competence and, subsequently, the pragmatic competence of the dreamer in the dreaming state, using large subject pools drawn from the general population (in this case in the Netherlands) and following careful protocols designed to avoid selectivity and maximize accuracy of recall. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Verbal language in dreams」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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